The Last Mughal: The Fall of Delhi, 1857

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Pagaza, Ignacio; Argyriades, Demetrios (2009). Winning the Needed Change: Saving Our Planet Earth. IOS Press. p.129. ISBN 978-1-58603-958-5. Schmidt, Karl J. (2015). An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-47681-8. While there appears to have been little concern for theoretical astronomy, Mughal astronomers made advances in observational astronomy and produced nearly a hundred Zij treatises. Humayun built a personal observatory near Delhi; Jahangir and Shah Jahan were also intending to build observatories, but were unable to do so. The astronomical instruments and observational techniques used at the Mughal observatories were mainly derived from Islamic astronomy. [191] [192] In the 17th century, the Mughal Empire saw a synthesis between Islamic and Hindu astronomy, where Islamic observational instruments were combined with Hindu computational techniques. [191] [192] Aurangzeb's son, Bahadur Shah I, repealed the religious policies of his father and attempted to reform the administration. "However, after his death in 1712, the Mughal dynasty sank into chaos and violent feuds. In 1719 alone, four emperors successively ascended the throne", [43] as figureheads under the rule of a brotherhood of nobles belonging to the Indian Muslim caste known as the Sadaat-e-Bara, whose leaders, the Sayyid Brothers, became the de facto sovereigns of the empire. [70] [71] Broadberry, Stephen; Gupta, Bishnupriya (2005). Cotton textiles and the great divergence: Lancashire, India and shifting competitive advantage, 1600–1850 (PDF). The Rise, Organization, and Institutional Framework of Factor Markets. Utrecht University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 September 2016 . Retrieved 5 December 2016.

Sinopoli, Carla M. (1994). "Monumentality and Mobility in Mughal Capitals". Asian Perspectives. 33 (2): 294. ISSN 0066-8435. JSTOR 42928323. Archived from the original on 1 May 2022 . Retrieved 11 June 2021. Parthasarathi, Prasannan (2011), Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850, Cambridge University Press, pp.39–45, ISBN 978-1-139-49889-0, archived from the original on 4 April 2023 , retrieved 9 August 2017 Alter, Joseph S. (May 1992). "The sannyasi and the Indian Wrestler: The Anatomy of a Relationship". American Ethnologist. 19 (2): 317–336. doi: 10.1525/ae.1992.19.2.02a00070. ISSN 0094-0496.a b Nanda, J. N. (2005). Bengal: The Unique State. Concept Publishing Company. p.10. ISBN 978-81-8069-149-2. Archived from the original on 22 September 2023 . Retrieved 5 May 2016. Michael, Bernardo A. (2012). Statemaking and Territory in South Asia. Anthem Press. p.67. doi: 10.7135/upo9780857285324.005. ISBN 978-0-85728-532-4. See also: Muslin trade in Bengal and Mughal clothing Miniature painting – Portrait of an Old Mughal Courtier Wearing Muslin Muslim Lady Reclining or An Indian Girl with a Hookah, painted in Dacca, 18th century

Alter, Joseph S. (1992). The Wrestler's Body: Identity and Ideology in North India. University of California Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-520-07697-6. Wrestling in modern India is a synthesis of two different traditions: the Persian form of the art brought into South Asia by the Moguls, and an indigenous Hindu form. The jagirdar (local tax collector) was another kind of official approached, especially for high-stakes cases. Subjects of the Mughal Empire also took their grievances to the courts of superior officials who held more authority and punitive power than the local qadi. Such officials included the kotwal (local police), the faujdar (an officer controlling multiple districts and troops of soldiers), and the most powerful, the subahdar (provincial governor). In some cases, the emperor themself dispensed justice directly. [97] Jahangir was known to have installed a "chain of justice" in the Agra Fort that any aggrieved subject could shake to get the attention of the emperor and bypass the inefficacy of officials. [101] Suneja, Vivek (2000). Understanding Business: A Multidimensional Approach to the Market Economy. Psychology Press. p.13. ISBN 978-0-415-23857-1. Archived from the original on 22 September 2023 . Retrieved 9 August 2017. A Long History of Urdu Literary Culture", Literary Cultures in History, University of California Press, p.29, 2019, ISBN 978-0-19-565201-7, archived from the original on 26 March 2023 , retrieved 19 March 2023 The last emperor was also known to his familiars as Zafar - the pen name he used when writing poetry - a word which means "victory" and which could scarcely have been less appropriate, given that it was attached to one of history's great losers. For he died five years after the mutiny, in faraway Burma, a frail 87-year-old who was spoon-fed on broth by the handful of family and retainers he had been allowed to take with him into exile. He had been banished not so much for what he did during the mutiny as for what he represented to the mutineers - Hindus as well as Muslims - who regarded him as the touchstone of an old and deeply rooted way of life which the Victorian Evangelicals, who dominated the making and execution of British policy, were determined to replace with the prejudices and habits of muscular Christianity. To them it was vital that Zafar should be put down, precisely because, having a Hindu mother, he appealed to both sides of India's own great religious division.

See also

White, Matthew (2011). Atrocitology: Humanity's 100 Deadliest Achievements. Canongate Books. p.113. ISBN 978-0-85786-125-2. Archived from the original on 22 September 2023 . Retrieved 19 May 2023. Parthasarathi, Prasannan (2011), Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850, Cambridge University Press, p.2, ISBN 978-1-139-49889-0 A Long History of Urdu Literary Culture, Part 1: Naming and Placing a Literary Culture", Literary Cultures in History, University of California Press, pp.805–863, 2019, doi: 10.1525/9780520926738-019, ISBN 978-0-520-92673-8, S2CID 226765648, archived from the original on 22 September 2023 , retrieved 26 July 2021 a b Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Taj Mahal". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 1 February 2018 . Retrieved 7 May 2020. The Mughal Empire also drew on Persianate notions of kingship. Particularly, this meant that the Mughal emperor was considered the supreme authority on legal affairs. [97] Courts of law

Mikaberidze, Alexander (2011). Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes]: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p.43. ISBN 978-1-59884-337-8. Maddison, Angus (1971). Class Structure and Economic Growth: India and Pakistan Since the Moghuls. Taylor & Francis. p.33. ISBN 978-0-415-38259-5. Archived from the original on 22 September 2023 . Retrieved 22 August 2017.

These are just a few stories among many, of India’s dying royalty.

Dyson, Tim (2018). A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day. pp.63–65.

Technological Dynamism in a Stagnant Sector: Safety at Sea during the Early Industrial Revolution" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 December 2019 . Retrieved 3 August 2017. There was savagery on all sides in 1857, while at home Lord Palmerston wanted to see Delhi deleted from the map in reprisal for what had happened there. Atrocities against the British were also committed at Kanpur, where women and children were butchered without mercy, too, which guaranteed the appalling retribution that followed when the rebellion was put down. John Nicholson, who became a cult figure among his native troops (they thought he was an incarnation of Vishnu) and his fellow countrymen, proposed "a bill for the flaying alive, impalement or burning of the murderers of the [British] women and children of Delhi"; and one of his soldiers (a Quaker, no less) habitually bayonetted sepoys while chanting Psalm 116. That's the one that begins "I am well pleased: that the Lord hath heard the voice of my prayer". Mughal influence on Indian music". The Hindu. 8 February 2000. Archived from the original on 26 December 2019 . Retrieved 5 April 2019. The Mughal Empire had a highly centralised, bureaucratic government, most of which was instituted during the rule of the third Mughal emperor Akbar. [88] [89] The central government was headed by the Mughal emperor; immediately beneath him were four ministries. The finance/revenue ministry was responsible for controlling revenues from the empire's territories, calculating tax revenues, and using this information to distribute assignments. The ministry of the military (army/intelligence) was headed by an official titled mir bakhshi, who was in charge of military organisation, messenger service, and the mansabdari system. The ministry in charge of law/religious patronage was the responsibility of the sadr as-sudr, who appointed judges and managed charities and stipends. Another ministry was dedicated to the imperial household and public works. [77] [88] Administrative divisions Khalfaoui, Mouez. "Mughal Empire and Law". Oxford Islamic Studies Online. Archived from the original on 13 December 2021 . Retrieved 13 December 2021.Sardar, Marika (October 2003). "The Art of the Mughals After 1600". The MET. Archived from the original on 4 February 2019. Gilbert, Marc Jason (2017), South Asia in World History, Oxford University Press, pp.75–, ISBN 978-0-19-066137-3, archived from the original on 22 September 2023 , retrieved 15 July 2019 Quote: "With Safavid and Ottoman aid, the Mughals would soon join these two powers in a triumvirate of warrior-driven, expansionist, and both militarily and bureaucratically efficient early modern states, now often called "gunpowder empires" due to their common proficiency is using such weapons to conquer lands they sought to control." Islam: Mughal Empire (1500s, 1600s)". BBC. 7 September 2009. Archived from the original on 13 August 2018 . Retrieved 13 June 2019. Matthews, David. "Urdu". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011 . Retrieved 26 July 2021. According to economic historian Immanuel Wallerstein, citing evidence from Irfan Habib, Percival Spear, and Ashok Desai, per-capita agricultural output and standards of consumption in 17th-century Mughal India were probably higher than in 17th-century Europe and certainly higher than early 20th-century British India. [128] The increased agricultural productivity led to lower food prices. In turn, this benefited the Indian textile industry. Compared to Britain, the price of grain was about one-half in South India and one-third in Bengal, in terms of silver coinage. This resulted in lower silver coin prices for Indian textiles, giving them a price advantage in global markets. [129] Industrial manufacturing